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A review of the literature to examine the analgesic properties of cannabis.

Medical Cannabis for Analgesia: Growth and Development

A review of the literature to examine the analgesic properties of cannabis.

On July 10, 2025 United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) agents raided state-licensed cannabis nurseries in Southern California 

(1). Upon arriving, ICE federal agents and accompanying National Guard troops were met by protestors.

 (1) reported that other news organizations, such as the 

 were mentioning that news of the raids were sparking migrant-rights activists to “faceoffs with federal agents in the middle of rural roadways.”

ICE federal agents showed up at two locations, one in Carpinteria, California and Camarillo, California, both locations are operated by Glass House Farms (1,2). The cannabis nurseries were reportedly visited by ICE in June 2025, according to an attorney that is representing individuals working at Glass House Farms.

“DHS law enforcement is executing a warrant at a marijuana facility. Our brave officers will continue to enforce the law,” a spokesperson for the Department of Homeland Security, the parent agency of ICE, replied by email to 

 reported that the agents had “deployed smoke grenades near the crowd, estimated at 100 to 200 people,” (2). US Representative Salud Carbajal was in attendance of the protests. Protesters were shouting “Let him through!” (2). ICE federal agents did not let Carbajal get through. “This is ridiculous. This is military theater,” Carbajal said to 

 (2). “Look at this, militarized agents on domestic soil acting like military.”

The US representative felt that the situation was “overkill and ridiculous,” (2).

“Look, If they want to deport criminals that’s one thing. This is not deporting criminals,” Carbajal expressed (2). “This is going after every day, hardworking immigrants.”

As a member of congress, Carbajal was attempting to “exercise his oversight authority as a member of Congress, and that company officials later told him 10 workers were taken into custody at that location,” (1).

On June 14, 2025, President Donald Trump stopped ICE from enforcing on farms, but that policy didn’t stay in effect for long. Recently, Trump mentioned that (1) “He was willing to let migrant workers stay in the country if farmers can ‘vouch’ for them.” Not long after though, Agriculture Secretary Brooke Rollins commented that there’d be “no amnesty” from deportation for farmworkers (1).

The US government anticipates that around half of farmworkers are illegally in the country and it has been expressed within the farm sector that enforcing these mass deportations could “cripple the nation’s food supply chain,” (1).

Glass House Brands Inc. announced it was partnering with the University of California, Berkely

 to collaborate on hemp research and regulation.

The partnership has been working to facilitate hemp genetics research, market analysis, and new medicinal product development targeting coronaviruses, pain, sleep, inflammation, and cirrhosis (3). It is interested in providing more information on supply chain sustainability and AI automation in hemp cultivation and production. The regulation research is hoping to reduce uncertainty for hemp growers in California, using data-driven approaches.

 reported that from the cannabis nursery raids, a Camarillo cannabis farmworker named Jaime Alanís Garcia, had fallen from a greenhouse roof and was critically injured, has passed away from being taken off life support (4). 

Gorman, S.; Douglas, L. Immigration raids on California cannabis nurseries spark protests 

https://www.reuters.com/world/us/immigration-raids-california-cannabis-nurseries-spark-protests-2025-07-11/

Magnoli, G.; Caraway, R. Crowd confronts federal agents in raid at Central Coast cannabis farm 

https://www.sacbee.com/news/california/article310421215.html

McEvoy, E. Glass House Brands and UC Berkeley announce Hemp Research Partnership 

https://www.cannabissciencetech.com/view/glass-house-brands-and-uc-berkeley-announce-hemp-research-partnership

Smith, D.; Goffard, C.; Marantos, J. Details emerge about pot-farm immigration raid as worker dies 

https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2025-07-12/ice-agents-raid-farm-mans-death

ICE federal agents raided cannabis nurseries in Southern California, sparking protests from migrant-rights activists.

Topic

Southern California ICE Raids Targeting Cannabis Nurseries Trigger Protests

In our Women in Grow: Leadership in Cannabis Genetics and Cultivation supplement, 

 interviewed researcher and educator Anna Schwabe, PhD, Associate Lecture Professor at the University of Colorado and Chief Operating Officer of CannaGen, an online cannabis genetic marketplace for licensed breeders, nurseries, and cultivators.

In this video clip, Dr. Schwabe discusses her educational background and what led her to in-depth research on cannabis genetics and more.

 to read the full expert interviews, including an interview with hemp specialist 

Anna Schwabe, PhD shares her educational background in plant genetics

Road to Cannabis Research: Interview with Anna Schwabe, PhD

 Hello everyone, I'm Sebastian Krawiec, Managing Editor of 

, and we are joined today by Dr. Anna Schwabe, a leading expert in cannabis genetics and biology. Dr Schwabe holds her bachelor's, master's and doctorate's degrees from the University of Northern Colorado, where she received the Graduate Dean Citation for Excellence and the Dean's Award for Outstanding Dissertation for her research on cannabis variation. She has been published extensively on topics that include THC potency, cannabis strains, genetics, and olfactory discrimination, and is an accomplished botanical illustrator and educator. Dr. Schwabe is currently Associate Lecture Professor at the University of Colorado, where she co-developed and teaches multiple cannabis science courses and is Principal Research Director for the Agricultural Genomics Foundation. Most recently, she became Chief Operating Officer of CannaGen, an online cannabis genetic marketplace for licensed breeders, nurseries, and cultivators. Thank you so much for joining us today.

: It's a pleasure. To start off, could you to tell us a little bit about your background and how you became interested in cannabis?

: Like many people, I was introduced to cannabis in high school and again in college. My first stint was at Colorado State University and I took a lot of Drugs in the Human Body courses, my major was anatomy and physiology, so I really interested in that sort of stuff. So, there was a lot of cannabis dabbling, not necessarily partaking in, but learning about it, researching it, that kind of thing, reading books like the Electric Kool Aid Acid Test and those kind of hippie movement literature books. So that was where it started. I did not graduate from Colorado State, but I did take a lot of courses there. I took some time off and worked in the pizza industry for a while, and then after about 10, 15 years doing that, I wanted to go back to college. I finished my bachelor's degree and my emphasis was in cellular and molecular biology. 

During that time, we had a new faculty member who joined UNC, and he was teaching plant systematics and all the boring plant classes that I totally didn't want to take, but the Animal Behavior class was full, so I needed an upper level biology course, and the only one that had seats left was this plant taxonomy class, Plant Systematics. I took it because otherwise I would have had to go another semester to get all the credits that I needed. So I took it and didn't particularly enjoy it – it was interesting, it was new, the professor was super young, very excited about teaching about plants. I learned a lot about all kinds of stuff, but it still wasn't my bag of things that I was super interested in, but we got to do some drawing of plants, which I really enjoyed, and that pushed me towards getting that botanical illustration certification. I also ended up having to take some capstone credits, which, if you haven't been in academia, you have to do bench work where you learn lab skills, or you do a project where you turn in a big paper or something to get you ready for the job world where you have to do more than just read books and take quizzes. So, I ended up working in Mitt’s lab – he was the professor for the systematics class. I had to do six credits of capstone work, which was quite a lot. It was like 100 hours or so in the course of a semester to graduate on that timeline that I had given myself. The project that he tasked me with was extracting DNA from cacti, and this was a project that was in collaboration with the Denver Botanic Gardens and the Bureau of Land Management, which was great. I graduated with that degree, went and got my botanical illustration certification, and then I was like, I kind of want to keep doing this. I asked Mitt if I could do my master’s and carry on that same project. So that's my background in population genetics, that started with this cactus project. So I got my master’s in that, which was looking at the hybridization of these two closely related cacti that grow in the same area. The Bureau of Land Management wanted to know, are they hybridizing? Because if they're hybridizing, then they don't really warrant protection. And I promise the story is going somewhere, it does land on cannabis.

After I graduated with my master’s, I went and worked at the Denver Botanic Gardens, working on multiple projects, looking at population and genetic relationships within and among closely related species. I started working there in 2012. In 2012 is when Colorado voted on adult use cannabis, so it was during that time that cannabis was really starting to take off in Colorado, people were getting interested. Colorado was the first state to legalize recreational use for adults, so there was a lot of conversations going on. I had a volunteer in my lab who was getting into the industry, and I thought it was really interesting. There were conversations that were popping up, there were questions that were popping up in the community among consumers, like, how come when I buy Blue Dream from this dispensary, it's not the same as when I buy it from this other dispensary? So I thought, with my background in population genetics and specifically looking at genetic relationships within and among species or groups, I had the perfect background to be able to answer some of those questions. I approached Mitt again and said, “Hey, I've got this idea.” Cannabis is newly legal. We don't know anything about it. There's really not a lot of research that has been done on it, because it's been illegal for the better part of a century, and certainly in terms of, since we've had genetic tools, and especially in terms of a marketplace and the retail arena, there really wasn't any research that had been done to answer some of these questions. Yeah, there was research on THC and what THC does to the brain, but that's not really what I was interested in, right? Mitt said, “No, we're not doing weed. This is a conservation population genetics lab.” But he did change his tune, and he was like, “You know what? This really is an interesting question, and we can build on this, and someone's going to do it. So, yeah, let's go ahead and do this.” He went to the school lawyer, the dean, the provost, and the president, and they all said, “yeah, she can totally work on cannabis, as long as she's not bringing smokeable material onto campus. Yeah, we can do that.” I just needed the DNA. Getting the DNA out of the plant and into the lab was really what I needed to do. So that's where it all started.

Updated on May 15, 2025 at 7:30PM EST to include video transcription.

In this interview clip from our Women in Grow: Leadership in Cannabis Genetics and Cultivation supplement, Anna Schwabe, PhD shares her educational background in plant genetics.


Videos

The Road to Cannabis Research: Interview with Anna Schwabe, PhD

On April 1, 2024, the Cannabis Act (CanG) passed in Germany and reclassified cannabis as a non-narcotic. These legislative actions eased administrative barriers for patients and prescribing doctors, sparking significant growth in the market. Since then, the medical cannabis industry has seen a substantial increase in both patient numbers and supply.

As of April 2024, there are an estimated 300,000 patients who use medical cannabis with 17 tons of supply. Yet the passage of CanG has only started to ignite momentum in the market. According to calculations based on findings in Bloomwell Group’s recent report titled “

The Cannabis Barometer: Motives, Concerns and Preferences of Cannabis Consumers in Germany

,” the German medical cannabis company found that the market has the potential to reach more than 20 million patients and a supply of 60,000 tons. With this in mind, Germany is poised to become one of the largest and most promising medical cannabis markets in the world, offering a bright future for investors, policymakers, and healthcare professionals (1).

Majority of German Consumers Cite Health Reasons for Cannabis Use

Bloomwell Group’s 2024 report revealed that 94% of respondents who consumed cannabis did so for at least one medical or health reason. The most common reason cited by respondents for consuming cannabis was for stress relief (about 60%), followed by sleeping disorders (50.4%) and pain relief (35%) (1).

The report also revealed that while the majority of cannabis users in Germany use the plant for medical or health reasons, within the past year, only 10% of the survey participants obtained cannabis exclusively from licensed pharmacies. Almost 60% of consumers continue to obtain their cannabis illegally, often despite their concerns about poor quality and associated health damage. Over a quarter of respondents (26%) said they had already purchased contaminated cannabis, while around 31% had obtained poor quality on the illegal market in the past (1).

Improving Patient Access Through Medical Training and Guidance from Experts

One of the key barriers to consumers being able to access medical cannabis through a pharmacy is the lack of doctors who are willing and experienced in prescribing cannabis as a medical treatment. Despite the improved legal framework, over 90% of those surveyed struggle to find a doctor who is open to cannabis therapy and has the necessary expertise. This highlights the urgent need for more doctors to be trained and open to prescribing medical cannabis, a crucial step in improving patient access and care.

Physicians who specialize in medical cannabis should lead conversations, spread awareness, and help educate other doctors in the field about cannabis as a medical treatment and its health potential. In addition, it’s important for medical professionals to provide evidence-based factual information to the public that can help ease outdated stigmas and myths surrounding cannabis. They should also take a firm hand in helping to guide regulatory leaders and professionals within the scientific and medical communities as they seek to ease regulations surrounding the research of cannabis for patients.

Technology to Drive Patient Access and Ease of Use

Within the last few years, telemedicine has increased worldwide, partly due to the travel and social distancing limitations imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic. According to McKinsey & Company, by the second quarter of 2022, 96 percent of outpatient practitioners in Germany were linked to the telematics infrastructure, up from 90 percent in 2020. As of the second quarter of 2022, 99 percent of pharmacies in Germany were connected to the telematics infrastructure, a significant increase from 75 percent in 2021, according to McKinsey & Company (2).

Telemedicine allows patients to access medical care consultations without having to travel to a physician's physical office. Using video chat, patients can speak with healthcare providers about their medical conditions, and doctors can prescribe medical cannabis based on the patient’s symptoms. Not only does this provide convenience and accessibility for patients, but it also helps reduce healthcare costs associated with in-person visits and cuts waiting times. This is especially useful to medical cannabis patients who are in remote parts of Germany and may not be in an area that has a doctor who specializes in cannabis therapy. Such advancements also allow pharmacies to receive digital prescriptions from prescribing physicians and fulfill them on-site.

Cannabis patients have reported to prefer to receive prescribed cannabis products through a digital application and have them delivered directly to them from the pharmacy. According to the Bloomwell report, 92% of those surveyed would like cannabis treatment through an app with delivery from the pharmacy (1).

Stakeholders have opportunities to build upon the areas of the industry that are already fueling growth, like telemedicine, and also provide strategies to help transition German consumers from the illicit market to the legal medical market.

To do this, it is important for key players within the industry to help fuel conversations about medical cannabis therapy and the patient process. Providing clear and accurate information about the benefits and regulations of the legalized medical cannabis market can help patients understand the benefits of securing cannabis through licensed pharmacies rather than risk contaminated products from the illicit market.

In addition, industry leaders and regulators alike should work together to ensure that legalized medical cannabis stays accessible and affordable for patients. The cost of medical cannabis must be competitive with that of the illicit market. To provide a steady supply, international imports of medical cannabis are needed and must continue to grow to meet consumer demand. Investors will need to continue fueling the German import market to ensure patients receive uninterrupted access to their prescribed treatment.

The Cannabis Barometer: Motives, Concerns and Preferences of Cannabis Consumers in Germany.

https://25378200.fs1.hubspotusercontent-eu1.net/hubfs/25378200/Report%20Motives%20Cannabis%202024%20E.pdf

Messal, H.; Niedermann, F.; Padmanabhan, P.; Müller, T.; Lösch, M.; Silberzahn, T.; Richter, L.

 Telemedicine in Germany: A Rapid Evolution Amid COVID-19. 

McKinsey & Company, Stuttgart, DE, 2022. 

https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/life-sciences/our-insights/german-e-health-offerings-expand-but-adoption-remains-uneven

Niklas Kouparanis is the CEO and Co-Founder of Bloomwell Group.

Kouparanis, N. Regulatory German Medical Cannabis Market Has Yet to Reach Its Full Potential. 

Germany’s Cannabis Act (CanG) is beginning to transform the country's medical cannabis market, with potential opportunities to expand telemedicine, improve physician training, and enhancing accessibility in this rapidly growing industry.

German Medical Cannabis Market Has Yet to Reach Its Full Potential

 first began in 1911 (1) and reminds us to soak in all the amazing achievements women have made to the nutraceutical space.

 is putting the spotlight on women by compiling women-related content, new and old. From research to interviews, women are such an important part of the cannabis science space that 

is dedicated to covering closely. Enjoy International Women’s Day 2025!

In this roundup article to honor of International Women's Day, 

 compiled a roundup of articles related to women's research.

Women Grow Launches New Nonprofit, Women Grow Foundation

Women Grow announced the creation of a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization, the Women Grow Foundation, which is intended to offer access to education, funding, and advocacy for women-owned and -led businesses in the cannabis industry.

In this roundup article, we are excited to share with you our roundup of interviews with female leaders in the industry.

Trailblazing Women in Analytical Science Roundup

In this roundup article, we are excited to share with you our roundup of interviews from our December 2024 Women in Analytical Science Supplement.

Stay tuned for more International Women's Day-themed content! We will be updating this landing page throughout this week.

International Women’s Day. International Women’s day 2025 campaign theme: Accelerate action 

Check out our exciting 2025 International Women's Day coverage!

CST Celebrates International Women's Day 2025

This article has been updated to include additional commentary on interpreting the findings.

 (1), researchers examined the potential connections between cannabis legalization in Ontario, Canada and the prevalence of schizophrenia diagnoses. The study was conducted from January 1, 2006, to December 31, 2022, which covers both the legalization of medical cannabis, which started in 2001 and expanded until full legalization in 2015, and nonmedical cannabis legalization in 2018. The population-based cohort study, “Changes in Incident Schizophrenia Diagnoses Associated With Cannabis Use Disorder After Cannabis Legalization,” was published in February 2025 in 

(1). It was funded by Canadian Institutes of Health Research and by ICES (formerly known as the Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences).

The study noted prior research on associations of cannabis use, especially cannabis with high THC content, and the development or earlier onset of psychosis and schizophrenia, though evidence on cannabis legalization and psychosis is deficient. The goal in this study was to measure the population-attributable risk fraction (PARF) for cannabis use disorder (CUD) associated with schizophrenia, in other words, the number of cases of schizophrenia that could have been prevented if cannabis use severe enough to require emergency or hospital care was eliminated.

This study analyzed data from 13,588,681 people aged 14 to 65 years without a history of schizophrenia, noting diagnoses of CUD diagnoses in emergency rooms or hospital settings.

Out of the total population, 118,650 individuals had CUD

91,106 developed schizophrenia (0.6% of the population without CUD and 8.9% of the population with CUD)

From the prelegalization period to the legalization period, the PARF for CUD associated with schizophrenia increased from 3.7% to 10.3%

Compared with the PARF for CUD associated with schizophrenia, which increased steadily even after cannabis policy changes, the PARF for CUD associated with psychosis not otherwise specified accelerated after the liberalization of medical cannabis policy

Limitations of the study were noted. These included a lack of access to confounders (including individual-level income, educational attainment, family history of mental health disorders, and genetics), which could affect the validity of the PARF estimators. Other limitations included the exposure definition of CUD and the impacts of COVID-19.

Ultimately, the researchers concluded: “the proportion of incident cases of schizophrenia associated with CUD almost tripled during a period encompassing ongoing liberalization of medical and nonmedical cannabis. Although the proportion of cases of schizophrenia associated with CUD increased fairly linearly over time, incident cases of psychosis NOS and the proportion associated with CUD accelerated after cannabis liberalization.”

More research was called for in order to understand cannabis legalization policy’s long-term associations with the occurrence of psychotic disorders. Additionally, it was suggested that the association between cannabis use disorders and schizophrenia be taken into consideration in the legalization of cannabis.

Invited Editorial Commentary on this Study

 (2) from Jodi M. Gilman, PhD, Center for Addiction Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School. Dr. Gilman summarized the study and offers insight on the major findings, explaining that the first main finding provides more evidence for the association between cannabis use and an increased risk for psychosis, especially in young adults.

She comments on the second main finding: “The second finding of this study is that the PARF for CUD associated with psychosis NOS, but not schizophrenia, accelerated further with the legalization of cannabis for medical but not recreational purposes. These mixed findings should not make us doubt the association between cannabis use and psychosis; rather, they highlight the methodological challenges of linking the biological causality of a complex psychiatric illness, such as schizophrenia, with a cannabis policy change.”

Dr. Gilman also addresses three challenges of using large-scale electronic medical record studies when assessing mental health consequences of cannabis policy, specifically, establishing concrete time points of legalization, establishing the start of cannabis use and the onset of psychosis, and establishing data on THC potency in cannabis consumed. She concludes: “It is important not to misinterpret findings suggesting no significant acceleration in adverse outcomes after cannabis legalization as a statement that policy does not matter. Policy does matter; allowing unfettered commercial markets to exist exposes more individuals to a greater variety of readily available, high-potency cannabis products.”

Correlation vs Causation; Interpreting the Findings

 offers additional insights and commentary on interpreting the results of the study. First, she notes that the populations of CUD and schizophrenia are very small: of the people with schizophrenia, 11.6% had CUD, while 88.4% did not, and of the people with CUD, 8.9% had schizophrenia, while 0.6% did not. “There’s a nontrivial coincidence – this only establishes correlation, not causation,” she explains.

Fisher also comments on the increase in accessibility of cannabis from 2006 to 2022 and the incidence of schizophrenia, noting that the incidence rate of schizophrenia decreased between 2006 to 2022, and the incidence of schizophrenia stayed the same between pre- and post-legalization. “The researchers simply glossed over this fact without providing any explanation and simply shifted the focus to cases of schizophrenia with CUD,” Fisher states. “It seems utterly plausible to me that people with schizophrenia don’t feel well, so they try to medicate. If cannabis became easier to access over the period, then it makes sense they’d increasingly use cannabis to self-medicate.”

The seventeen-year study analyzed cases of schizophrenia over periods of cannabis policy liberalization and legalization in a Canadian province.

Jamal Bouie

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